Evidence comparison
A number needs
its conditions.
Read force, environment and evidence status together. These studies answer different questions; their force values are not a performance leaderboard.
8 studies
| Study / evidence | Quantity and scale | Conditions | What it changes |
|---|---|---|---|
| IKAROS photon accelerationFlight demonstration — JAXA, 2010 | Solar-radiation force inferred from orbit determination1.12 mN estimated solar-pressure thrust | Deployed sail during interplanetary flight; external sunlight supplies momentum. | Use as proof that externally driven propellant-free motion works. Area, optical properties and orientation still govern performance. |
| Direct lightsail force measurementLaboratory experiment — Michaeli et al., 2025 | Optical force on a compliant microscopic membrane70 fN at 110 W/cm²; 50 nm membrane thickness | Supported silicon-nitride membrane; interferometric readout and coupled optical/thermal modeling. | Connect force readout to optical-power and thermal behavior. Its sensitivity is an apparatus result, not an Alpha 1 requirement or a spacecraft specification. |
| NIST axial force radiometerDemonstrated metrology system — Williams et al., 2021 | Laser power inferred from photon momentum1–10 kW comparison; expanded uncertainty 2.1% at 1–2 kW and 1.2% above 2 kW | Specified laboratory instrument using an analytical balance and a collinear input/output optical path. | Borrow the explicit uncertainty-budget approach. This is a benchmark, not permission to promise NIST-level capability or a recommendation to use a high-power laser in MF-01. |
| Patterned-surface Casimir forceLaboratory experiment — Chan et al., 2008 | Casimir interaction between a gold sphere and trenched siliconMeasurements at 150–500 nm surface separations | Micromechanical torsional oscillator; finite material conductivity and nanoscale geometry; publisher links a 2011 erratum. | Use geometry-aware calculations. Summing independent microcavity forces is not a valid whole-hull scaling argument, and a component interaction does not establish vehicle thrust. |
| Nonreciprocal plate heat engineTheory — Gelbwaser-Klimovsky et al., 2021 | Predicted lateral force and heat transfer between platesNear-field force/heat-transfer ratio scales inversely with separation under the model; no measured thrust reported | Different plate temperatures; at least one nonreciprocal plate in the studied translationally invariant arrangement; efficiency bounded by Carnot. | Explore a defined thermal interaction while accounting for both bodies and reservoirs. Do not treat it as a closed-system spacecraft demonstration. |
| Nonreciprocal nanoparticle forcesTheory — Henkes et al., 2025 | Calculated heat transfer and propulsion forces involving nanoparticlesModel-dependent force can exceed the particle's gravitational force; no experimentally measured thrust reported | Specified nonreciprocal responses, particle/environment geometry and thermal conditions; passivity constrains heat-engine efficiency. | Reproduce one fully specified numerical case before extrapolation. A particle-weight comparison does not establish whole-system lift, practical power or vehicle-scale thrust. |
| EMDrive artifact eliminationLaboratory null result — Tajmar et al., online 2021 | Force on tested microwave-cavity assembliesReported frequency-scan results within a 10–30 nN noise level | Revised balance, onboard battery power and mounting changes suppress thermal and feedthrough effects in the tested configurations. | Treat mounting, heat and current paths as experimental variables. Reversed or power-correlated motion is not sufficient evidence of a new mechanism. |
| Pioneer thermal recoilFlight-data and thermal-model analysis — Turyshev et al., 2012 | Spacecraft acceleration from anisotropic thermal emissionNo statistically significant unexplained acceleration after the modeled thermal recoil was accounted for | Spacecraft geometry and flight telemetry inform a thermal model, compared with an independently fitted Doppler-data model. | Include directional heat emission in the momentum budget. Distinguish a genuine conventional recoil force from evidence of a new interaction. |
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Selected comparison set reviewed 19 October 2026. Values are attributed to their cited studies, not to Metric Flight. A theoretical value is explicitly labeled as such.